[ { "jurisdiction": "European Union", "country_code": "EU", "region": "eu", "statute": "Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 (eIDAS)", "enacted": "2014-07-23", "signature_levels": [ { "name": "Simple Electronic Signature (SES)", "description": "Article 3(10) — data in electronic form attached to or logically associated with other electronic data, used by the signatory to sign. Per Article 25(1), admissibility cannot be denied solely because the signature is electronic." }, { "name": "Advanced Electronic Signature (AES)", "description": "Article 26 — uniquely linked to the signatory; capable of identifying them; created using signature creation data the signatory can use under sole control with high confidence; linked to the signed data so that subsequent change is detectable." }, { "name": "Qualified Electronic Signature (QES)", "description": "Article 3(12) — an AES created by a Qualified Electronic Signature Creation Device (QSCD per Annex II) and based on a qualified certificate from a listed Qualified Trust Service Provider. Article 25(2) gives it legal effect equivalent to a handwritten signature." } ], "blockchain_admissible": { "status": "conditional", "explanation": "eIDAS is technology-neutral (Recital 27). Blockchain anchoring can satisfy the Article 26(d) integrity requirement and, combined with proper signatory identification and key custody, produce an Advanced Electronic Signature. Qualified Electronic Signatures additionally require the signing key to reside in a QSCD certified per Annex II and a qualified certificate from a QTSP listed on the EU Trusted List — pure on-chain signing without a QSCD does not produce a QES." }, "judicial_precedents": [], "lastVerified": "2026-05-09", "sources": [ { "url": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32014R0910", "title": "Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 (eIDAS)", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32024R1183", "title": "Regulation (EU) 2024/1183 (eIDAS 2)", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://eidas.ec.europa.eu/efda/tl-browser/", "title": "EU Trusted List Browser — European Commission", "accessed": "2026-05-09" } ], "confidence": "high", "validationConflicts": [] }, { "jurisdiction": "United States", "country_code": "US", "region": "americas", "statute": "ESIGN Act (15 U.S.C. § 7001 et seq.) + UETA (model uniform law)", "enacted": "2000-06-30", "signature_levels": [ { "name": "Electronic signature (technology-neutral)", "description": "ESIGN § 106(5) (15 U.S.C. § 7006(5)) and UETA § 2(8) — an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record. ESIGN/UETA are technology-neutral: a single legal category, with no AES/QES tiering." } ], "blockchain_admissible": { "status": "yes", "explanation": "ESIGN and UETA are technology-neutral. Blockchain-anchored signatures are admissible under ESIGN § 101(a) (15 U.S.C. § 7001(a)) and UETA § 7. Authentication follows Federal Rules of Evidence 901 and 902(13)–(14), which allow self-authentication of records generated by an electronic process or system upon certification by a qualified person. Vermont, Arizona, and Illinois have additionally enacted blockchain-specific evidentiary statutes." }, "judicial_precedents": [], "lastVerified": "2026-05-09", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-106publ229/html/PLAW-106publ229.htm", "title": "ESIGN Act (Public Law 106-229) — full text", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/7001", "title": "15 U.S.C. § 7001 — General rule of validity (Cornell LII)", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/7003", "title": "15 U.S.C. § 7003 — Specific exceptions (Cornell LII)", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.uniformlaws.org/committees/community-home?CommunityKey=2c04b76c-2b7d-4399-977e-d5876ba7e034", "title": "Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA) — Uniform Law Commission", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/fre/rule_902", "title": "Federal Rules of Evidence Rule 902 — Self-authentication (Cornell LII)", "accessed": "2026-05-09" } ], "confidence": "high", "validationConflicts": [] }, { "jurisdiction": "United Kingdom", "country_code": "GB", "region": "eu", "statute": "Electronic Communications Act 2000 + UK assimilated eIDAS (Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 as retained)", "enacted": "2000-05-25", "signature_levels": [ { "name": "Simple Electronic Signature (SES)", "description": "UK assimilated eIDAS Article 3(10) — data in electronic form attached to or logically associated with other data and used by signatory to sign. ECA 2000 s.7 establishes admissibility of electronic signatures in UK legal proceedings." }, { "name": "Advanced Electronic Signature (AES)", "description": "UK assimilated eIDAS Article 26 — uniquely linked to signatory, capable of identifying them, sole-control creation, detectable subsequent change." }, { "name": "Qualified Electronic Signature (QES)", "description": "UK assimilated eIDAS Article 3(12) — AES with a UK qualified certificate created on a UK Qualified Signature Creation Device. Note: post-Brexit, the UK maintains its own Trust Services List separate from the EU Trusted List, and EU–UK QES recognition is no longer automatic." } ], "blockchain_admissible": { "status": "conditional", "explanation": "ECA 2000 and UK assimilated eIDAS are technology-neutral. Blockchain anchoring can satisfy AES integrity requirements under Article 26(d). QES requires a UK QSCD per Annex II and a qualified certificate from a UK Qualified Trust Service Provider on the UK Trust Services List. The UK Jurisdiction Taskforce's 2019 Legal Statement on Cryptoassets and Smart Contracts supports broader admissibility of blockchain-based evidence under English law." }, "judicial_precedents": [], "lastVerified": "2026-05-09", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/7/contents", "title": "Electronic Communications Act 2000", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2019/89/contents/made", "title": "Electronic Identification and Trust Services for Electronic Transactions (Amendment etc.) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eur/2014/910/contents", "title": "UK assimilated text of Regulation (EU) No 910/2014", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/project/electronic-execution-of-documents/", "title": "Law Commission — Electronic execution of documents (2019)", "accessed": "2026-05-09" } ], "confidence": "high", "validationConflicts": [] }, { "jurisdiction": "Germany", "country_code": "DE", "region": "eu", "statute": "Vertrauensdienstegesetz (VDG) + BGB § 126a + ZPO § 371a (eIDAS implementation)", "enacted": "2017-07-18", "signature_levels": [ { "name": "Simple Electronic Signature (SES)", "description": "eIDAS Article 3(10), as implemented in Germany via VDG and the Bundesnetzagentur's Trust Services List." }, { "name": "Advanced Electronic Signature (AES)", "description": "eIDAS Article 26 — implemented in Germany via VDG; admissible per § 416 ZPO with general evidentiary rules for private documents." }, { "name": "Qualified Electronic Signature (QES)", "description": "eIDAS Article 3(12) — replaces statutory Schriftform per § 126a BGB; carries the evidentiary effect of a private document per § 371a Abs. 1 ZPO. Requires a BSI-assessed QSCD and a qualified certificate from a Bundesnetzagentur-listed QTSP." } ], "blockchain_admissible": { "status": "conditional", "explanation": "VDG and eIDAS are technology-neutral. Blockchain can satisfy AES integrity requirements under Article 26(d). QES requires a BSI-conformity-assessed QSCD per eIDAS Annex II and a qualified certificate from a Bundesnetzagentur-listed QTSP — pure on-chain signing without QSCD does not produce QES." }, "judicial_precedents": [], "lastVerified": "2026-05-09", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/vdg/", "title": "Vertrauensdienstegesetz (VDG)", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bgb/__126a.html", "title": "§ 126a Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch — Elektronische Form", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/zpo/__371a.html", "title": "§ 371a Zivilprozessordnung", "accessed": "2026-05-09" } ], "confidence": "high", "validationConflicts": [] }, { "jurisdiction": "France", "country_code": "FR", "region": "eu", "statute": "Code civil articles 1366–1369 + Décret n° 2017-1416 du 28 septembre 2017", "enacted": "2017-09-28", "signature_levels": [ { "name": "Simple Electronic Signature (SES)", "description": "eIDAS Article 3(10), as recognised under Code civil articles 1366 and 1367 alinéa 1 — admissible if identity attribution and integrity conditions are met; no statutory reliability presumption." }, { "name": "Advanced Electronic Signature (AES)", "description": "eIDAS Article 26 — admissible under Code civil article 1366 with general probative force conditions; integrity must be guaranteed and the trial court applies free appreciation of evidence." }, { "name": "Qualified Electronic Signature (QES)", "description": "eIDAS Article 3(12) — triggers the Article 1367 alinéa 2 reliability presumption per Décret n° 2017-1416. Requires an ANSSI-listed QSCD and a qualified certificate from a French (or EU) Qualified Trust Service Provider." } ], "blockchain_admissible": { "status": "conditional", "explanation": "Code civil and Décret 2017-1416 are technology-neutral. Blockchain anchoring can satisfy the integrity condition of article 1366 and the equivalent eIDAS Article 26(d) requirement for an AES. QES additionally requires an ANSSI-conformity-assessed QSCD per eIDAS Annex II and a qualified certificate from an ANSSI-listed QTSP. France's Ordonnance n° 2017-1674 (DEEP) and Loi PACTE 2019 recognise blockchain registers in defined sectoral contexts but do not modify the QSCD requirement." }, "judicial_precedents": [ { "case": "Cass. civ. 1, 11 juillet 2018, pourvoi n° 17-10.458 (Publié au bulletin)", "year": 2018, "url": "https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/juri/id/JURITEXT000037384025/", "summary": "First Civil Chamber confirms that the écrit requirement for the validity of certain juridical acts may be satisfied by an electronic exchange under Code civil article 1366 where identification and integrity are established, independently of the QES reliability presumption of article 1367 alinéa 2." } ], "lastVerified": "2026-05-09", "sources": [ { "url": "https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/section_lc/LEGITEXT000006070721/LEGISCTA000006149846/", "title": "Code civil — Section 1: De la preuve par écrit", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000035676246", "title": "Décret n° 2017-1416 du 28 septembre 2017 relatif à la signature électronique", "accessed": "2026-05-09" }, { "url": "https://cyber.gouv.fr/produits-services-qualifies", "title": "ANSSI — Catalogue des produits et services qualifiés", "accessed": "2026-05-09" } ], "confidence": "high", "validationConflicts": [] } ]